Friday, November 18, 2016

Andean Cocaine by Paul Gootenberg

Gootenberg, Paul Andean Cocaine: The Making of a Global Drug. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008.

       Andean Cocaine traces the obscure processes and transformations of the global coca and cocaine commodity chain. Gootenberg documents the traditions of the Andean coca leaf, the birth of cocaine as a medical commodity, the early twentieth-century decline of licit cocaine, and cocaine’s reemergence as a global illicit good following World War II and the decades that followed.
                The commodity chain of coca and cocaine began with the extraction of alkaloidal cocaine from the dried Andean coca leaf. This discovery by German doctoral student Albert Niemann would soon transform cocaine into a world drug commodity. Initially, cocaine was essential as a high-value medical commodity. Medical uses of cocaine included treatment of opiate addiction, hay fever, asthma, or other respiratory ailments. Cocaine’s greatest medical impact in the United States and Europe was as a local anesthetic used during surgery. In Europe, cocaine’s commodity chain was defined by the coca elixir Vin Mariani developed by Corsican physician and chemist Angelo Mariani. Cultivated by Peruvian and Bolivian peasants living in the Andean Mountains, the coca leaf would be dried and shipped to the United States or Europe for refining. Due to the herb’s limited shelf life during transportation, the alkaloidal cocaine extracted would lose potency. The development of Peruvian crude cocaine by Arnaldo Kitz accelerated the industrialization of cocaine. Kitz’s cocaine extraction method involved processing the dried leaf on location in Peru into a crude form that could withstand global shipping.
Peruvian initiative and crude cocaine became the economic lifelines that would spur the licit cocaine boom at the end of the nineteenth century and on into the twentieth. By 1900 Peru had a world monopoly on the product. Crude cocaine created a global connectedness in Andean networks of coca and cocaine. There were two major commercial chains: a German-European-Andean circuit and a United States-Andean circuit. Minor French and British nodes of cocaine science and culture also existed, but all combined to institutionalize and embed channels for the flow of research, medicine, political ideals, and influences in an attempt to monopolize and control the cocaine marketplace.
Declining medical demand and the United States’ anticocaine policies helped lead to an end of the licit cocaine era. By 1950 the illicit cocaine commodity chain was on the verge of erupting into one of the most prolific underground economies in the world. Contrary to popular belief, Colombians came to cocaine, not the other way around. Andean peasants continued to cultivate the coca bush, but by the 1970s Colombians would be responsible for the refinement and marketing of cocaine. Sociopolitical conditions in Colombia enabled narcos, like Pablo Escobar and Blanca Ibáñez, to aggressively manage the sale of cocaine in places such as Miami and Hollywood.
Nineteen Fifties-America witnessed cocaine consumption turn from an already declining licit trade to strictly illicit. Changing cultural tastes turned American drug users from harmless marijuana to the rush of cocaine. With Cuba as the pioneer test market for cocaine, the drug made an easy jump into Miami where there existed a large Cuban diaspora community already familiar with the drug. Increasing drug surveillance and international police cooperation between the United States and several Latin American countries resulted in futile attempts to end the illicit cocaine trade. Ironically, the United States policing of cocaine worked within its borders, but failed when imposed on other countries.
During the latter half of the twentieth century, several global changes occurred that unleashed the illicit cocaine boom. The first occurred in Peru. The Huallaga Valley, the central location of coca and cocaine activity in Peru, experienced a collapse of postwar development schemes. This paved the way for coca-growing peasants to actively intensify their cocaine activities. Second, the cocaine capitalism in the Andes created a rising class of Colombian narcos who crafted new heights and new markets for cocaine. Finally, Nixon-era politics and policies led to a vast new demand for cocaine. As recreational cocaine usage skyrocketed, Nixon’s politically constructed war on cocaine could not put a dent in the growing American cocaine trade or consumption. The main objective of the newly established Drug Enforcement Agency was to raise the price of cocaine to deter consumer use. Instead, the opposite happened.
Given its Andean genealogy, coca and cocaine held important cultural meanings in Peru. The scientific interest in cocaine was part of an awakening of Peruvian scientific nationalism. Lima’s medical elites and modern chemistry transformed the coca plant into medicinal cocaine in the nineteenth century. Peruvians took an herb steeped in Incan history and changed it into an exclusive and modern good. This early study of coca combined science and patriotism. Peruvian scientist’s proximity and experiences lent a privileged place as compared to scientists in Europe. With help from Peruvians like Moreno y Maíz and J. C. Ulloa, elite scientific nationalism made local and traditional coca and universal and scientifically modern cocaine into national subjects, or what Gootenberg calls “highland Andeanness.”
Peruvian scientist Alfredo Bignon’s place in the genealogy of cocaine as a world commodity cannot be underscored. His cocaine papers, published between 1884 and 1887, were investigations into coca and cocaine, but also laced with Peruvian nationalist and commercial overtones. Bignon’s prolific contributions to cocaine science rival that of Sigmund Freud. His cocaine papers were translated and published in major American, French, and German journals. Scientists like Bignon, combined with coca and cocaine, created an innate Peruvian nationalist culture and global commodity.
 Despite the turn towards Colombian narcos for its sale and marketing, the cultivation remained in the hands of coca-growing peasant population of Peru and Bolivia. Peasant cultivation knowledge did not easily progress, and as such the cultivation technology remained largely unchanged. Significant changes in the history of cocaine technology occurred when Kitz began his crude cocaine refining technique. Without question German scientists deserve a nod for their contributions in the science of coca and cocaine. The late nineteenth-century principal center of cocaine research, production, and distribution was Germany. Emmanuel Merck and others came from a well-financed and influential pharmaceutical and scientific European bloc. With modern research models, Germany was able to dominate the early coca and cocaine commodity trade.
After the epic invention by Bignon, the Peruvian migrant Kitz was able to install coca profitably into the Amazon. With nationalist undertones cocaine was promoted as a commodity by native Peruvian Augusto Durand. Even during the decline phase of cocaine during the first part of the twentieth century, Peruvian merchant Andrés A. Soberón continued the exploitation of the Andean plant and cocaine. Coinciding with the rise of anticocainism in the twentieth century, cocaine passed underground to nameless and faceless chemists and narcos who continued to develop cocaine into one of the world’s most lucrative commodities.




Thursday, November 10, 2016

Columbus and Leanna Boles Clayton family picture


Leanna Boles Clayton

birth: October 12, 1862
location: Texas
death: January 15, 1905
location:

father:
mother:

spouse: Columbus M Clayton

family picture

1900 census

burial

children with Columbus M Clayton:

Minnie Lee Clayton - 1881
Ella Clayton - 1883
Alexander Clayton - 1885
Lula Mae Clayton - 1888
Carl Marion Clayton - 1890
Lem Leon Clayton - 1893
John Homer Clayton - 1897
Jewel Clayton - 1898
Era Clayton 1899
Howard P. Clayton - 1901

Wednesday, November 9, 2016

Isaiah Hogan and Elizabeth Smith marriage



Ancestry.com. Tennessee State Marriages, 1780-2002 [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2008.

R R Smith - 1860 census

1860 census
location: Nacogdoches County, Texas
date: July 21, 1860

R R Smith  29  male  keeping grocery  Tennessee
Mary E Smith  29  female  housekeeper  Texas
Elizabeth Hogan  52  female  housekeeping  Tennessee
John Patterson  30  male  farmer  South Carolina
Anna Patterson  24  female  housekeeper  Tennessee
Samuel Patterson  6  male  Texas
Robert N Patterson  5  male  Texas
Thomas Patterson  33  male  farmer  South Carolina
Sarah Patterson  6  female  housekeeper  Texas



Ancestry.com. 1860 United States Federal Census [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2009. Images reproduced by FamilySearch.